![]() Sober (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1984) ![]() Lewontin, Adaptation, in Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology, ed. Dobzhansky, Genetics of natural populations XXV. Dobzhansky, Genetics of the Evolutionary Process (University. Dobzhansky, On some fundamental concepts of evolutionary biology. Maynard Smith, The Theory of Evolution (Penguin, New York, 1975) Raven, Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Haraway (Garland Publishers, New York, 1997). Swenson, Thermodynamics, Evolution and Behavior, in The Encyclopedia of Comparative, ed. Darwin, The Origin of Species (John Murray, London, 1872). Huxley, Evolution the Modern Synthesis (Allen and Unwin, London, 1942)Ĭ. Corning, Biological adaptation in human societies: a basic needs approach. This chapter includes a short historical note highlighting the results and opinions of workers that have initiated and expanded the adaptation, and emergence scientific field. Then, the concept of “emergence”, which again is one of the most difficult philosophical concepts strongly connected with delicate questions of life existence and evolution on Earth, is examined. The adaptation measurement aspect is also examined. This chapter starts by introducing the concept of adaptation, its manifestations, and its basic properties and mechanisms. In this chapter, an overview of this field is provided including biological, hard science, soft science, and computer science issues. Complex Adaptive Systems (CAS) have the general properties of complex systems, but they also exhibit several higher level features. It is due to the interrelationship, interdependence, and connectivity of elements and entities in the interior and the environment of an organism or system. Complexity is also an inherent property of life, human society, and technology. It was of primary concern by biologists and scientists over time and produced strong debates about its nature and impact on life evolution. Adaptation is inherent in all biological organisms and societal systems, and provides the means for assuring the fitness and survival of any biological species or society in a given environment.
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